What Is Conservatism?

Conservatism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes the preservation of traditional institutions, customs, and values. It's a complex and nuanced ideology with variations across different cultures and historical periods. Conservatism is often contrasted with liberalism and progressivism, which tend to emphasize individual rights and social change. The specific values and priorities of conservatism can vary significantly depending on the cultural and historical context. In essence, conservatism is a philosophy that prioritizes stability, order, and the preservation of established traditions, while acknowledging the complexities and limitations of human nature.

I. Historical and Political Background of Conservatism

Conservatism as a political ideology emerged as a reaction to rapid social and political changes, particularly in response to revolutions and the rise of liberalism. Below are the key historical and political contexts that shaped conservatism:

1. Origins: Reaction to the French Revolution (18th Century)

• The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a major turning point that prompted conservative thought.
• The revolution sought to overthrow monarchy, abolish traditional hierarchies, and establish a radical vision of equality and democracy.
• Edmund Burke, in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), criticized the revolution’s destructiveness and emphasized the importance of gradual change, tradition, and social order.
• The horrors of the Reign of Terror (1793-1794) reinforced conservative fears about radical change leading to chaos.

2. 19th Century: Conservatism vs. Liberalism and Socialism

• The 19th century was marked by industrialization, which led to economic and social transformations, challenging traditional ways of life.
• Conservatives opposed radical ideas emerging from liberalism (which emphasized individual rights and democracy) and socialism (which called for economic equality).
• Key Figures:
• Joseph de Maistre (France) defended monarchy and divine authority, rejecting democracy.
• Prince Metternich (Austria) led the Congress of Vienna (1815), aiming to restore monarchies and suppress revolutions.
• Benjamin Disraeli (Britain) promoted "One-Nation Conservatism," balancing tradition with social reform.

3. 20th Century: Conservatism vs. Totalitarianism

• The rise of fascism (Nazi Germany, Italy) and communism (Soviet Union, China) led conservatives to defend democracy, capitalism, and traditional values.
• After World War II, conservatism adapted to modernity while resisting socialism and expanding government control.
• The Cold War (1947-1991) deepened the divide between conservatives (capitalist, anti-communist) and leftist/socialist movements.
• Key Figures:
• Winston Churchill opposed Nazi and Soviet totalitarianism.
• Friedrich Hayek argued against government intervention in the economy (The Road to Serfdom).
• Russell Kirk emphasized moral order and tradition (The Conservative Mind).

4. Late 20th Century: The Rise of Neoliberal Conservatism

• In the 1970s-1980s, conservatism merged with economic liberalism, opposing government regulation and welfare expansion.
• Leaders like Margaret Thatcher (UK) and Ronald Reagan (USA) championed free markets, tax cuts, and limited government.
• Religious conservatism gained prominence, especially in the U.S., where groups like the Christian Right opposed secularism and progressive social policies.

5. 21st Century: Modern Conservatism

• Conservatism today remains diverse, with different strands:
• Traditional Conservatism (emphasizing heritage, family, and order).
• Neoconservatism (favoring democracy promotion and strong foreign policy).
• Right-wing Populism (nationalism, anti-globalism, and skepticism of elites).
• Contemporary debates include globalization, immigration, climate change, and digital-era freedoms.
• Figures like Donald Trump, Boris Johnson, and Viktor Orbán represent new forms of conservative politics

II. Philosophical Foundations of Conservatism

The philosophical foundations of conservatism are rooted in a set of beliefs about human nature, society, and governance. While conservatism has different branches and interpretations, some core principles provide a foundation for conservative thought.

1. Tradition and Continuity

• Conservatives value historical institutions, customs, and cultural heritage, believing they contain accumulated wisdom.
• Change should be gradual and respect past practices rather than being revolutionary or radical.
• Thinkers like Edmund Burke argued that society is an intergenerational contract and that traditions help maintain stability.

2. Human Imperfection

• Conservatives generally have a pessimistic view of human nature, believing people are flawed, self-interested, and morally imperfect.
• Because of this, strong institutions (such as family, church, and law) are necessary to maintain order and prevent chaos.
• Thomas Hobbes, though not a conservative himself, influenced conservative thought with his idea that without order, life would be "nasty, brutish, and short."

3. Hierarchy and Authority

• Society is naturally hierarchical, and inequalities are both inevitable and beneficial for social order.
• Leadership and authority are necessary to guide society, and people should respect established hierarchies (e.g., monarchy, church, state).
• Joseph de Maistre defended monarchy and argued that strong authority prevents social disorder.

4. Pragmatism and Skepticism of Ideology

• Conservatives reject abstract theories and utopian visions that promise a perfect society.
• They favor practical solutions that have worked historically rather than radical, untested reforms.
• Michael Oakeshott argued that governing should be like sailing—a continuous adjustment to reality rather than following rigid ideological maps.

5. Free Market and Private Property

• Economic conservatism emphasizes capitalism, free markets, and property rights as essential for prosperity and individual freedom.
• Thinkers like Adam Smith and Friedrich Hayek argued that market forces are more effective than government planning in organizing society.

6. Moral and Religious Foundations

• Many conservatives believe that morality is derived from religious or natural law principles.
• Institutions like the family and church play a key role in instilling moral values and maintaining social cohesion.
• Russell Kirk emphasized the importance of religion in maintaining conservative principles.

7. Nationalism and Patriotism

• Conservatives often emphasize national identity, sovereignty, and patriotism.
• They reject globalism and prefer policies that prioritize the interests of the nation-state.
• Thinkers like Roger Scruton argued that national loyalty fosters a sense of belonging and social responsibility.

III. Religious Focal Points of Conservatism

Religion has historically played a crucial role in shaping conservative thought. While specific religious beliefs vary across cultures, conservative ideology generally emphasizes the following religious focal points:

1. Moral Order and Divine Authority

• Conservatives often believe that morality is derived from divine law, not human reason alone.
• Many argue that without religion, moral decay and social chaos will follow.
• Key Thinkers:
• Edmund Burke saw religious tradition as a foundation for social stability.
• Russell Kirk believed that moral order is a core principle of conservatism.

2. Family and Traditional Social Values

• The family is viewed as a sacred institution, essential for passing down religious and cultural values.
• Conservatives oppose radical changes to marriage, gender roles, and sexual ethics.
• Religious conservatives tend to promote:
• Traditional marriage (opposition to same-sex marriage in some cases).
• Pro-life views (against abortion).
• Parental rights in education, often supporting faith-based schools.

3. Defense of Religious Institutions and Freedom

• Conservatives often resist secularization and seek to protect religious institutions from state interference.
• Support for religious freedom laws, allowing businesses and individuals to act according to their beliefs.
• Opposition to policies that force religious groups to conform to secular norms (e.g., requiring churches to perform same-sex marriages).

4. Christianity and Western Conservatism

• In the West, conservatism has been heavily influenced by Judeo-Christian values, including:
• Natural law (moral truths are universal and come from God).
• Personal responsibility and free will.
• The dignity of human life, influencing views on abortion and euthanasia.
• Groups like the Christian Right in the U.S. have played a major role in conservative politics.

5. Religious Nationalism and Identity

• Many conservatives tie religious identity to national culture (e.g., Poland’s Catholic nationalism, Hindu nationalism in India).
• They oppose globalization and multiculturalism if they believe these threaten religious traditions.
• Examples:
• Russian conservatism aligns with Orthodox Christianity.
• Hindu nationalism in India (Bharatiya Janata Party, BJP).
• Islam-based conservatism in Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia.

6. Opposition to Progressive Theology and Secularism

• Conservatives often resist liberal theology, which adapts religious teachings to modern secular values.
• Concerns include:
  • Churches accepting same-sex marriage and gender fluidity.
  • Secular governments restricting religious expressions in public life.

IV.  Different Types of Conservatism

Conservatism is not a monolithic ideology; it has evolved into multiple branches, each with distinct priorities and beliefs. Below are some of the main types of conservatism:

1. Traditional Conservatism

Core Beliefs:

• Emphasizes tradition, hierarchy, and gradual change over radical reform.
• Believes society is an organic entity that should evolve naturally, not be forcibly changed.
• Stresses moral order, duty, and social harmony.

Key Figures:

• Edmund Burke – Opposed the French Revolution, advocating for slow, organic change.
• Russell Kirk – Believed in the preservation of moral and cultural traditions.

Example Policies:

• Support for monarchy, aristocracy, and traditional institutions.
• Opposition to rapid social change (e.g., same-sex marriage, secularism).

2. Libertarian Conservatism

Core Beliefs:

• Merges conservative values with classical liberalism (economic freedom, minimal government).
• Individual liberty is the highest priority, even over traditional social structures.
• Advocates free markets, private property, and limited state intervention.

Key Figures:

• Friedrich Hayek – Warned against government overreach in The Road to Serfdom.
• Milton Friedman – Argued for free-market capitalism and lower taxes.

Example Policies:

• Deregulation of businesses and markets to promote competition.
• Lower taxes and reduced welfare programs to encourage self-reliance.
• Personal freedoms in areas like gun rights, free speech, and privacy.

3. Social Conservatism

Core Beliefs:

• Focuses on preserving traditional moral values, often linked to religious beliefs.
• Opposes progressive social policies (abortion, LGBTQ+ rights, gender fluidity).
• Emphasizes the role of family, religion, and cultural identity.

Key Figures:

• Pope John Paul II – Advocated for Christian values in politics.
• Pat Buchanan – U.S. politician known for strong social conservative positions.

Example Policies:

• Opposition to abortion and promotion of pro-family policies.
• Support for religious freedom and faith-based education.
• Tougher laws on crime and drugs to uphold moral order.

4. Neoconservatism

Core Beliefs:

• Advocates for a strong national defense and interventionist foreign policy.
• Promotes democracy and Western values abroad, often through military means.
• Initially started as a reaction against communism and moral decline.

Key Figures:

• Irving Kristol – Known as the "godfather" of neoconservatism.
• Paul Wolfowitz – Played a key role in U.S. foreign policy, especially in the Iraq War.

Example Policies:

• Strong military funding and interventions (e.g., Iraq War, Cold War policies).
• Support for Israel and alliances with democratic nations.
• Opposition to authoritarian regimes (e.g., China, Russia, Iran).

5. National Conservatism (Right-Wing Populism)

Core Beliefs:

• Prioritizes national identity, sovereignty, and cultural homogeneity.
• Opposes mass immigration, globalization, and multiculturalism.
• Seeks to protect domestic industries from global competition.

Key Figures:

• Donald Trump (USA) – "America First" policies, trade protectionism, and border security.
• Marine Le Pen (France) – Nationalist opposition to the EU and immigration.

Example Policies:

• Tough immigration laws (e.g., border walls, deportation policies).
• Protectionist trade policies (e.g., tariffs on foreign goods).
• Opposition to global institutions (e.g., the EU, UN, WHO).

6. Fiscal Conservatism

Core Beliefs:

• Focuses on balancing government budgets, reducing debt, and limiting public spending.
• Views big government as inefficient and wasteful.
• Encourages privatization and free-market competition.

Key Figures:

• Margaret Thatcher – Cut government spending in the UK.
• Ronald Reagan – Implemented supply-side economics ("Reaganomics").

Example Policies:

• Lower taxes to stimulate business investment.
• Privatization of public services (e.g., healthcare, energy).
• Opposition to socialist programs like universal healthcare.

7. Paleo-conservatism

Core Beliefs:

• Emphasizes traditionalism, nationalism, and non-interventionist foreign policy.
• Opposes modern liberal democracy, neoconservatism, and globalism.
• Supports agrarian values, small government, and cultural homogeneity.

Key Figures:

• Patrick Buchanan – Critic of U.S. interventionist wars.
• Samuel T. Francis – Opposed multiculturalism and globalist policies.

Example Policies:

• Withdrawal from global military conflicts (e.g., "America First" isolationism).
• Protection of national culture from immigration and foreign influence.
• Resistance to modern progressive movements like feminism and LGBTQ+ rights.

8. Green Conservatism

Core Beliefs:

• Combines environmental protection with market-based solutions.
• Advocates for conservation, sustainability, and responsible resource management.
• Opposes big government climate policies, favoring private sector innovation.

Key Figures:

• Theodore Roosevelt – Advocated for conservation policies in the U.S.
• David Cameron – Supported green policies as UK Prime Minister.

Example Policies:

• Investment in nuclear and clean energy (instead of strict carbon taxes).
• Tax incentives for green technology instead of heavy regulations.
• Conservation efforts that balance economic growth with environmental protection.

 

Bibliography

Books (Paper Sources):

• Scruton, Roger. The Meaning of Conservatism. London: Macmillan, 1980.
• This is a foundational work in conservative philosophy, exploring its core principles and contrasting it with other ideologies.  

• Kirk, Russell. The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Eliot. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 1953.
• A classic exploration of the intellectual history of conservatism, tracing its development from Edmund Burke to the mid-20th century.  

• Oakeshott, Michael. Conservatism and Other Essays. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2006.
• Oakeshott provides a distinctive philosophical perspective on conservatism, emphasizing its emphasis on tradition and skepticism of rationalism.
• Nisbet, Robert. Conservatism: Dream and Reality. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2001.
• This provides valuable historical and social context to conservativism.

Online Sources:

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Conservatism."
• This resource provides a comprehensive philosophical analysis of conservatism, exploring its various strands and key thinkers.
• URL: (Consult the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy web page, and search Conservatism

• Britannica.com: "Conservatism."
• This encyclopedia entry offers a broad overview of conservatism, its historical development, and its different forms.  
• URL: https://www.britannica.com/topic/conservatism

• • • The Heritage Foundation.
      • This is a prominent conservative think tank that publishes numerous articles and reports on conservative policy issues. It reflects perspectives of modern American conservatism.  
      • URL: https://www.heritage.org/

• "Conservatism" from the internet encyclopedia of philosophy.
  • Provides a more simplified explanation of many of the philosophical foundations of conservatism.
  • URL: https://iep.utm.edu/conserv/