The landscape of literary criticism underwent significant transformation during the early 20th century, particularly through the advent of New Criticism. This movement, primarily spearheaded by Anglo-American critics, emphasized close reading and the intrinsic value of literary works. A subsect of these critics, known as southern critics, further contributed to the discourse with their unique perspectives.

Core Ideas of New Criticism

New Criticism is characterized by its focus on the text itself, rather than external contexts. Key concepts include:

·                 Close Reading: A meticulous analysis of the text's language, structure, and meaning.

·                 The Intentional Fallacy: The idea that an author's intention is irrelevant to the interpretation of the text.

·                 The Affective Fallacy: The notion that a reader's emotional response should not influence the analysis of the text.

·                 Paradox and Irony: The recognition of these elements as central to the richness and complexity of literary works.

Key Figures of New Criticism

John Crowe Ransom

John Crowe Ransom is often regarded as the father of New Criticism. His seminal works, including "The New Criticism" (1941), laid the foundation for the movement. Ransom argued for the autonomy of the text, advocating for an analysis free from historical and biographical contexts. Ransom's major ideas centered around the autonomy of the literary text. He argued that literary works should be appreciated for their intrinsic value, rather than being evaluated based on historical or biographical contexts. This perspective was foundational to the New Criticism movement, which emphasized close reading and textual analysis. In his view, the text itself held all necessary elements for interpretation, and external factors such as the author's intentions or the reader's emotional response were deemed irrelevant to its understanding. Ransom's focus on the text's formal features, such as its structure, imagery, and language, sought to elevate the study of literature to a more rigorous and objective discipline.

Cleanth Brooks

Cleanth Brooks is another towering figure in New Criticism. His works, such as "The Well Wrought Urn" (1947), championed the idea of the "heresy of paraphrase," suggesting that the essence of a poem cannot be captured through mere summary. Brooks emphasized the importance of paradox, irony, and ambiguity in literary texts. Brooks argued that paraphrasing a poem diminishes its meaning and essence, coining the term "heresy of paraphrase". He believed that the complexity of literature comes from the interaction of various literary devices such as paradox, irony, and ambiguity. For Brooks, these elements create a rich texture and depth that cannot be simplified or translated into a straightforward summary. His approach underscored the necessity of engaging with the text in its entirety to fully appreciate its artistic expression. Brooks' work significantly advanced the practice of close reading, encouraging readers to delve into the multifaceted layers of a literary piece.

W.K. Wimsatt

W.K. Wimsatt is renowned for his groundbreaking ideas in literary criticism, particularly through his collaboration with Monroe Beardsley. Together, they introduced the concepts of the "intentional fallacy" and the "affective fallacy." The "intentional fallacy" argues that a critic should not consider an author's intentions when interpreting a literary work, as the text itself is the only source of meaning. Similarly, the "affective fallacy" posits that the emotional response of the reader should not influence the analysis of the text. These ideas underscored the importance of focusing on the formal elements of literature, such as structure, form, and language, thereby promoting a more objective and text-centered approach to literary criticism.

Monroe Beardsley

Monroe Beardsley's contributions, particularly in collaboration with Wimsatt, were pivotal in shaping New Criticism. His works focused on the formal elements of literature, encouraging critics to concentrate on the structure, form, and language of the text itself. Beardsley, along with Wimsatt, introduced influential concepts such as the "intentional fallacy" and the "affective fallacy," which posited that a critic should not consider an author's intention or the emotional response elicited in the reader when analyzing a text. These ideas underscored the importance of focusing on the formal elements of literature, thereby promoting a more objective and text-centered approach to literary criticism.

Anglo-American Critics

T.S. Eliot

T.S. Eliot, a renowned poet and critic, significantly influenced modernist poetry and New Criticism with his essays and literary works. One of his most notable essays, "Tradition and the Individual Talent" (1919), argued that poets should engage with the literary tradition and that the value of a poem lies in its ability to assimilate and transform past works. Eliot championed the idea of the "impersonal" nature of poetry, suggesting that the poet's personal emotions and experiences should be subordinated to the work itself. By advocating for an objective approach to literature, Eliot's ideas contributed to the foundational principles of New Criticism. In “Tradition and the Individual Talent,” T.S. Eliot presents several major ideas that have profoundly influenced literary criticism. Firstly, Eliot posits that the value of a poem lies in its ability to assimilate and transform past works. He argues that a poet must possess a historical consciousness, a sense of the timeless and the temporal together, which allows them to engage with the entire body of existing literature. This engagement is not mere imitation but a dynamic process where the new work modifies the existing tradition. Eliot also introduces the concept of the "impersonal theory" of poetry. He suggests that the poet's personal emotions and experiences should be subordinated to the work itself. The poet is merely a catalyst, transforming personal feelings into something universal and detached. This notion challenges the Romantic idea of poetry as the expression of personal emotion, advocating instead for an objective approach to literature. Through these ideas, Eliot emphasizes the importance of tradition in shaping literary innovation and the impersonal nature of true artistic expression. His insights laid the groundwork for many principles later adopted by the New Critics, promoting a rigorous, text-centered analysis that transcends individual subjectivity.

I.A. Richards

I.A. Richards, a seminal figure in literary theory, made groundbreaking contributions to the study of literature through his pioneering work on the reader's interaction with the text. His theories laid the groundwork for what would later evolve into reader-response criticism, emphasizing the dynamic relationship between the reader and the text. Richards introduced empirical methods to the study of literature with his influential work, "Practical Criticism" (1929). This book was based on a series of experiments where students were asked to read and analyze poems without any prior knowledge of the authors or contexts. Richards aimed to isolate the reader’s pure response to the text, devoid of any external influences. Richards argued that the meaning of a literary work is not fixed but is created through the interaction between the text and the reader. He believed that the reader's personal experiences, emotions, and cognitive processes play a crucial role in interpreting a text. This interaction is what gives a literary work its vitality and richness.

In his analysis, Richards identified four kinds of meaning that readers derive from a text:

1. Sense - The literal meaning or content of the text.

2. Feeling - The emotional tone or attitude expressed in the text.

3. Tone - The writer's attitude towards the subject and the audience.

4. Intention - The purpose or function of the text as perceived by the reader.

While Richards acknowledged the subjective nature of reading, he also advocated for a balanced approach that considers both the reader's response and the text's formal elements. He believed that a rigorous analysis of the structure, language, and style of a text could enhance the reader's understanding and appreciation. Richards' emphasis on the reader's interaction with the text challenged the prevailing formalist and New Criticism approaches, which focused solely on the text itself. His work encouraged a more inclusive and dynamic approach to literary criticism, one that recognizes the active role of the reader in creating meaning.

Southern Critics

Robert Penn Warren

Robert Penn Warren, a co-author of the influential textbook "Understanding Poetry" (1938) with Cleanth Brooks, was a key figure among southern critics. Warren's criticism often explored themes of identity, history, and morality within the context of Southern culture. His work reflected a deep engagement with the Southern experience, examining the complexities and conflicts inherent in its societal values. Through his writings, Warren sought to navigate the interplay between individual identity and collective history, making significant contributions to the discourse on Southern literature and its broader implications.

"Understanding Poetry," co-authored by Robert Penn Warren and Cleanth Brooks in 1938, is a landmark work in the field of literary criticism, particularly in the development of New Criticism. The textbook was designed to teach students how to read poetry with a critical eye, emphasizing close reading and a meticulous analysis of the text's formal elements. One of the central ideas in "Understanding Poetry" is the notion that poetry should be appreciated as an autonomous entity, with its meaning derived from its structure, language, and form rather than external contexts such as the author's biography or historical background. This approach aligns with the principles of New Criticism, which prioritizes the text itself over extrinsic factors. Warren and Brooks argue that a poem's meaning is not merely a paraphrasable statement but is embedded in its intricate interplay of words, sounds, and rhythms. They emphasize the importance of understanding the connotations, imagery, and figurative language employed by the poet, as these elements contribute to the overall effect and meaning of the poem.

Additionally, Warren and Brooks highlight the importance of ambiguity and tension in poetry, suggesting that the richness of a poem often lies in its ability to evoke multiple interpretations and emotional responses. They encourage readers to engage with the poem on a deeper level, considering how different parts of the poem interact to create a unified, yet complex, whole. In their analysis, Warren and Brooks also stress the significance of the reader's active role in the interpretative process. While they advocate for a close reading of the poem's formal aspects, they also acknowledge that the reader's engagement and insight are crucial in uncovering the layers of meaning within the text.

Allen Tate

Allen Tate was a prominent voice among southern critics, contributing significantly to the development of New Criticism. His essays and poetry often reflected his Southern heritage, blending formalist analysis with regional concerns. Tate's work highlighted the tension between tradition and modernity in Southern literature. Although not explicitly mentioned in this context, Allen Tate's contributions to New Criticism are well documented in his various published works, including his collected poems and critical essays. Tate's critical essays, such as "Miss Emily and the Bibliographer" and "The Man of Letters in the Modern World," provided insightful analyses of literature that underscored the importance of examining a text's form and structure. His work often emphasized the need to appreciate the complexities of language, rhythm, and symbolism within a literary piece, rather than relying on biographical or historical contexts. This approach resonated with the core tenets of New Criticism, which sought to elevate the text itself as the primary source of meaning. Tate's insistence on the significance of tradition and the interconnectedness of form and content in literature reinforced the New Criticism's focus on close reading and detailed textual analysis.

Donald Davidson

Donald Davidson, a poet and critic, emphasized the importance of regionalism and cultural identity in literature. His works critiqued the industrialization and urbanization of the South, advocating for a return to agrarian values. Davidson's criticism often intersected with his political beliefs, making him a complex and influential figure. Davidson's literary criticism was deeply rooted in his commitment to preserving the cultural and social values of the Southern United States. He saw regionalism as a vital counterbalance to the homogenizing forces of industrialization and urbanization, which he believed were eroding the distinct identity and traditions of the South.

Through his essays and poetry, Davidson championed the agrarian way of life, arguing that it provided a more authentic and sustainable basis for community and culture. He was a key member of the Southern Agrarians, a group of writers and intellectuals who advocated for a return to traditional agrarian values in opposition to the rapid industrialization of the early 20th century. In their manifesto, "I'll Take My Stand" (1930), Davidson and his fellow Agrarians emphasized the importance of maintaining regional distinctiveness and cultural heritage in the face of modernizing pressures. Davidson's criticism often intertwined with his political beliefs, as he argued that literature should reflect and sustain the unique cultural identity of a region. By focusing on the specific experiences, dialects, and histories of the Southern people, he sought to highlight the richness and diversity of American literature. This emphasis on regionalism underscored his belief that the local and particular could offer profound insights into universal human experiences.

Bibliography

Primary Sources

·       Brooks, Cleanth. The Well Wrought Urn. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1947.

·       Ransom, John Crowe. The New Criticism. New Directions, 1941.

·       Tate, Allen. Collected Poems, 1919-1976. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1977.

Secondary Sources

·       Leitch, Vincent B. The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. Norton, 2001.

·       Graff, Gerald. Professing Literature: An Institutional History. University of Chicago Press, 1987.

·       Singh, Sukhbir. "New Criticism: An Appraisal." Indian Journal of American Studies, vol. 18, no. 1, 1988, pp. 41-52.

Books

·       Eliot, T.S. Selected Essays, 1917-1932. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1932.

·       Richards, I.A. Practical Criticism. Routledge, 1929.

·       Warren, Robert Penn. Understanding Poetry. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1938.

Websites

·       Poetry Foundation. "T.S. Eliot."

·       Modern American Poetry. "Allen Tate."

·       Southern Literary Review. "Robert Penn Warren."

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